Prophet Muhammad al-Mustafa ﷺ

Historical context

In the late sixth century Mecca was a trading town built around the Ka‘ba, the sanctuary Muslims trace to Abraham and Ishmael. It was governed by the clans of Quraysh, whose wealth came from caravans and from the pilgrims who visited the sanctuary’s idols. Beyond Arabia, the Byzantine and Sasanian empires were exhausting one another in long wars.

Muhammad ﷺ belonged to Banu Hashim, an honoured but not wealthy clan of Quraysh. His father, Abd Allah, died before his zahoor and his mother, Amina, when he was about six. He was raised first by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib and then, from about the age of eight, by his uncle Abu Talib — the father of Imam Ali عليه السلام.

Before the mission

As a young man he became known in Mecca as al-Amin, “the trustworthy”. He travelled with trade caravans and married Khadija bint Khuwaylid, a respected merchant of Quraysh, who became his first and closest supporter. He was drawn to solitary reflection and regularly withdrew to the cave of Hira on a mountain outside Mecca.

Revelation and the years in Mecca

At about forty years of age he received the first revelation in the cave of Hira, the opening verses of Surat al-‘Alaq (Qur’an 96:1–5). In the Twelver tradition this beginning of the mission (al-Bi‘tha) is commemorated on 27 Rajab. Khadija and Ali, then a boy living in the Prophet’s household, were among the very first to believe.

After a period of quiet invitation he was commanded to warn his nearest kin (Qur’an 26:214). Reports preserved by al-Tabari and in Shia sources describe a gathering of Banu Hashim at which he asked who would support him, and Ali alone answered. The public call brought persecution: the early Muslims were mocked, boycotted and tortured, and a group migrated to Abyssinia. Banu Hashim were confined for about three years in the valley of Abu Talib. Soon after the boycott ended, Khadija and Abu Talib both died — the “Year of Sorrow”.

The migration and the community in Medina

In 622 CE, after pledges of support from the people of Yathrib, he migrated to the city that became Madinat al-Nabi, Medina. On the night of the migration Ali slept in the Prophet’s bed so that he could leave Mecca unseen; many commentators link Qur’an 2:207 to this act. The Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

In Medina he built the mosque, joined the emigrants and helpers in pacts of brotherhood — taking Ali as his own brother — and set out a written compact for the city’s communities. The following years brought the battles of Badr (2 AH), Uhud (3 AH) and the Trench (5 AH); the Treaty of Hudaybiyya (6 AH); the expedition to Khaybar (7 AH); and the largely peaceful entry into Mecca in 8 AH, after which he granted a general amnesty and cleared the Ka‘ba of idols.

When a delegation of Christians from Najran came to debate, Qur’an 3:61 was revealed, and he went out for the mutual invocation (al-Mubahala) accompanied by Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn — an event recorded in Sahih Muslim as well as in Shia sources.

The Farewell Pilgrimage, Ghadir Khumm and his passing

In 10 AH he performed his only pilgrimage after the Hijra. On the return journey, at the pool of Khumm on 18 Dhu al-Hijja, he halted the caravans, took Ali by the hand and declared that whoever held him as their mawla should hold Ali as their mawla. Twelver Shia understand this as the explicit designation of Ali as his successor and leader of the community.

He fell ill early in 11 AH and passed away in Medina at the age of sixty-three, according to the Twelver tradition on 28 Safar. Ali and members of the household washed and buried him in his house, which today lies within al-Masjid al-Nabawi.

Teachings

At the heart of his message was tawhid — the oneness of God — together with accountability in the hereafter, prayer, charity and justice. The Qur’an describes him as sent as a mercy to the worlds (21:107) and as possessing a tremendous character (68:4). His teaching stressed care for orphans, the poor and the enslaved, honesty in trade, the dignity of women within the family, and the pursuit of knowledge.

He repeatedly directed the community to the Qur’an and to his family. The report known as Hadith al-Thaqalayn — “the two weighty things” — is transmitted in Shia and Sunni collections alike.

Significance in Twelver Shia belief and Fiqh-e-Jafariya

Twelver theology holds that the Prophet ﷺ was ma‘sum: protected by God from sin and from error, both in conveying revelation and in his conduct. His Sunna — his words, actions and approvals — is, with the Qur’an, the primary source of law in Ja‘fari jurisprudence.

In Ja‘fari fiqh the Sunna is received above all through the Imams of his household, whose own statements are regarded as authoritative because they transmit and explain his teaching. Prophethood ended with him; the Imamate continues his guidance without new revelation.

Significant dates

1. 17 Rabi al-Awwal, Year of the Elephant (c. 570 CE)Zahoor in Mecca
2. c. 595 CEMarriage to Khadija bint Khuwaylid
3. 27 Rajab, c. 610 CEFirst revelation in the cave of Hira (al-Bi‘tha)
4. c. 619 CEYear of Sorrow: deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib
5. Rabi al-Awwal 1 AH (622 CE)Migration (Hijra) to Medina
6. Ramadan 2 AH (624 CE)Battle of Badr
7. Shawwal 3 AH (625 CE)Battle of Uhud
8. 5 AH (627 CE)Battle of the Trench (al-Khandaq)
9. Dhu al-Qa‘da 6 AH (628 CE)Treaty of Hudaybiyya
10. 7 AH (628 CE)Expedition to Khaybar
11. Ramadan 8 AH (630 CE)Entry into Mecca and general amnesty
12. 24 Dhu al-Hijja, 9 or 10 AHThe Mubahala with the Christians of Najran
13. 18 Dhu al-Hijja 10 AH (632 CE)Declaration at Ghadir Khumm
14. 28 Safar 11 AH (632 CE)Passing in Medina

Narrations and texts

Narrations are given as careful paraphrases, not verbatim translations. See the Editorial Methodology

Differing reports

• Date of zahoor: the Twelver tradition, following al-Mufid and al-Tusi, gives 17 Rabi al-Awwal; al-Kulayni and most Sunni sources give 12 Rabi al-Awwal.
• Date of passing: 28 Safar is widely accepted among Twelver Shia (al-Mufid, al-Tusi); al-Kulayni and Sunni sources report 12 Rabi al-Awwal.
• The Mubahala is placed in 9 or 10 AH in different reports.
• Al-Kulayni names three sons by Khadija — al-Qasim, al-Tayyib and al-Tahir — while al-Tabrisi says that al-Tayyib and al-Tahir were titles of one son, Abd Allah.
• Some Shia scholars hold that Zaynab, Ruqayya and Umm Kulthum were daughters of Khadija’s sister Hala, raised in the Prophet’s house; al-Kulayni and al-Tabrisi count them as his daughters.
• The lists of his marriages differ: al-Tabrisi also counts Umm Sharik, and names other women whom he married or sought in marriage.

Sources

1. al-Qur’an al-Karim
2. al-Sira al-Nabawiyya — Ibn Hisham, Abd al-Malik (d. 218 AH / 833 CE)
3. Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk — al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (d. 310 AH / 923 CE). years 1–11 AH
4. al-Kafi — al-Kulayni, Muhammad ibn Ya‘qub (d. 329 AH / 941 CE). Kitab al-Hujja, Bab mawlid al-Nabi wa wafatihi
5. Kitab al-Irshad fi Ma‘rifat Hujaj Allah ‘ala al-‘Ibad — al-Mufid, Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu‘man (d. 413 AH / 1022 CE)
6. I‘lam al-Wara bi-A‘lam al-Huda — al-Tabrisi, al-Fadl ibn al-Hasan (d. 548 AH / 1153 CE)
7. Shi‘ite Islam — Tabataba’i, Muhammad Husayn
8. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate — Madelung, Wilferd
9. I‘lam al-Wara bi-A‘lam al-Huda — al-Tabrisi, al-Fadl ibn al-Hasan (d. 548 AH / 1153 CE). chapter on his wives and children